LTAO Lighter-Than-Air Online

Some gases are buoyant in air because they have a density that is less than the density of air (about 1.2 kg/m3, 1.2 g/L). Lighter than air gases are used to fill craft called aerostats which include free balloons, moored balloons, and airship to make the whole aircraft, on average, lighter than air. (Heavier than air aircraft include aeroplanes, gliders and helicopters.)

Hot air

The density of a gas can be reduced by raising its temperature while leaving the pressure unchanged (Charles' Law).

Heated air is widely used as a lifting gas in hot-air balloons. (The gas in a hot-air balloon is not only heated air, but also includes the products of combustion from the balloon's burner.)

The altitude of a hot air balloon is controlled by regulating lift. To increase lift, more heat is applied. To decrease lift slowly, the hot air is allowed to cool. To decrease lift quickly, hot air is vented. Unlike balloons using low molecular mass gases (see below), hot air balloons require continual burning of fuel in order to remain aloft.

Low molecular mass gases

Because any given volume of any gas at a given temperature and pressure contains the same number of molecules (Avogadro's law), any gas with a lower molecular mass than that of air will be lighter than air (at the same temperature and pressure).

A sealed balloon expands as it rises because air pressure decreases with increasing altitude. As buoyancy depends on the mass of the displaced gas (Archimedes' principle) and because air is less dense at higher altitudes, balloons which rise to high altitudes (such as weather balloons) have to be allowed to expand as they climb so as to support the same weight. Weather balloons are made with strong elastic "envelopes" so that they do not burst as they expand.

Determining which gases are lighter than air is relatively straightforward. These gases must have a molecular mass less than 28.97 (the average molecular mass of air) and exist as a gas at atmospheric temperatures and atmospheric pressures.

Assuming one atom per molecule of gas, the heaviest possible atom that could meet these criteria is silicon, which has an atomic mass of 28.1. However, silicon does not become a gas until it reaches a very high temperature. The same applies to the metals aluminum, magnesium, sodium, beryllium and lithium and the hydrides of these. Carbon and boron have high boiling points, but methane and borane (the hydrides of carbon and boron) are lighter than air.

The following is a list of all stable materials with a molecular mass under 28.8 and a boiling point under 100°C. Although isotopes are not considered here, it should be remembered that for the replacement of hydrogen with deuterium (or even tritium) the large relative mass difference can alter some of the properties of that specific gas (eg rates of reaction). Therefore ND3 can be considered a different gas to NH3 in the extreme.

Compound Formula Mass Comments
Nitrogen N2 28 Majority component of air (~78%)
Carbon monoxide CO 28 Toxic, flammable
Ethylene C2H4 28 Flammable, reactive
Diborane B2H6 27.6 Spontaneously flammable in air
Hydrogen cyanide HCN 27 Very toxic, flammable, and water soluble
Acetylene C2H2 26 Extremely flammable, reactive, and unstable when compressed
Neon Ne 20.2 Noble gas
Hydrogen fluoride HF 20 Very toxic, very corrosive, and water soluble
Water H2O 18 Liquid at room temperature
Ammonia NH3 17 Somewhat toxic, slightly flammable, and water soluble
Methane CH4 16 Flammable
Helium He 4 Noble gas, expensive, very small size makes it prone to leakage, must be replenished often
Hydrogen H2 2 Very flammable, relatively inexpensive petroleum by-product, prone to leakage

HAHAMICE

The acronym HAHAMICE was used to help emergency responders remember the gasses which are lighter than air. It stood for:

H - Hydrogen
A - Ammonia
H - Helium
A - Acetylene
M - Methane
I - Illuminating Gases (old term for natural gas)
C - Carbon Monoxide
E - Ethylene

This acronym left out several gases, and was later changed to 4H MEDIC ANNA:

H - Hydrogen
H - Helium
H - Hydrogen Cyanide
H - Hydrogen Fluoride

M - Methane
E - Ethylene
D - Diborane
I - Illuminating Gases
C - Carbon Monoxide

A - Acetylene
N - Neon
N - Nitrogen
A - Ammonia

As is noticeable, the acronyms do not include all lighter than air gases.

Many of these gases are not practical for use in balloons. The following combine poor lift with objectionable properties: carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen fluoride, diborane, ethylene and acetylene. Nitrogen has negligible lift. Neon is harmless and offers a modest degree of lift; however it costs roughly the same as helium, another noble gas with far superior lift. The four remaining gases (ammonia, methane, helium, and hydrogen) have been used as balloon gases.

Ammonia has sometimes been used to fill weather balloons. Due to its relatively high boiling point (compared to helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially be refrigerated and liquified aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add lift and reduce ballast).

Methane (the chief component of natural gas) is sometimes used as a lift gas when hydrogen and helium are not available. It has the advantage of not leaking through balloon walls as rapidly as the small-moleculed hydrogen and helium. (Most lighter than air balloons are made of aluminized plastic that limits such leakage; hydrogen and helium leak rapidly through latex balloons.)

Hydrogen and helium

Hydrogen and helium are the most commonly used lift gases. Although helium is twice as heavy as (diatomic) hydrogen, they are both so much lighter than air that this difference is inconsequential. (Both provide about 1 kilogram of lift per cubic meter of gas at room temperature and sea level pressure.) Helium is preferred because it is not combustible.

The relative lifting power of hydrogen and helium can be calculated using the theory of buoyancy as follows:

The density at sea-level and 0 °C for air and each of the gases is:

* Air (ρair) = 1.292 grams per liter (g/l).
* Hydrogen (ρH2) = 0.08988 g/l
* Helium (ρHe) = 0.1786 g/l

Thus helium is almost twice as dense as hydrogen. However, buoyancy depends upon the difference of the densities (ρgas) - (ρair) rather than upon their ratios. Thus the difference in buoyancies is about 8%, as seen from the buoyancy equation:

* Buoyant mass (or effective mass) = mass × (1 - ρair/ρgas)
* Therefore the buoyant mass for one liter of hydrogen in air as:
o 0.08988 grams * (1 - (1.292 / 0.08988) ) = -1.202 grams
* And the buoyant mass for one liter of helium in air as:
o 0.1786 grams * (1 - (1.292 / 0.1786) ) = -1.113 grams

The negative signs indicate that these gases tend to rise in air.

Thus hydrogen's additional buoyancy compared to helium is:

* 1.202 / 1.113 = 1.080, or approximately 8.0%

Many countries have banned the use of hydrogen as a lift gas for manned vehicles. The Hindenburg disaster is frequently cited as an example of the risks posed by hydrogen. The high cost of helium (compared to hydrogen) has led researchers to reinvestigate the safety issues of using hydrogen as a lift gas: with good engineering and good handling practices, the risks can be significantly reduced. It has been suggested that policy might allow hydrogen for cargo airships (both those unmanned and those manned only by pilots) and require helium for passenger airships.

Water vapour

Although pure water is not a gas at room temperature and sea level pressure, water in the vapor phase mixes readily with dry air, as do any two gases, until the partial pressure of the water vapor reaches the saturation water vapor pressure at the current temperature. Such moist air is lighter than dry air at the same temperature, because the molecular mass of water is lower than the average molecular mass of dry air. Most hot air balloons burn propane (or some other hydrocarbon) to provide heat; the combustion products have an average molecular mass of 29.1; the "light" water vapor more or less compensates for the "heavy" carbon dioxide. Pure water vapor (steam) can be used to lift balloons; however, the question of condensation must be addressed somehow. One route would be simply to tolerate the condensation - this supposes a rather large balloon. Alternatively, the balloon could provide insulation (for example have a double-walled structure) or the water vapour (if pure) could be maintained at least at the boiling point of water at the altitude of use (100 degrees C at sea level; less higher) by a heating device. [There are intriguing possibilities in using a mixture of air and water vapor, at a temperature high enough for the water component to remain as vapor.] Two research efforts are currently underway to build steam-filled balloons (see external links below), taking rather different approaches; both of them have succeeded in practical demonstration of steam as a lift gas.

Vacuum balloon

First proposed by Italian monk Franceso de Lana in 1670, the vacuum balloon would be the ultimate expression of displacement lift power. A frequent topic of blue sky thinking, the basic principle has remained the same: A container strong enough to preserve a vacuum that displaces sufficient air to lift the container and an additional load. However to avoid crushing by atmospheric pressure would require materials far stronger than any currently available (see unobtainium)

LTao Lao Tsu
Tao or Dao (道, Pinyin: Dào, Cantonese: Dou) is a Chinese character often translated as ‘The way of nature'. In ancient China, dao could be modified by other nouns. Tao is simply the way and order of the Universe.

Lao Tsu( Lao, Tzu, Lao Zi) taught that the wisest approach was a way of ‘non struggle action’ ("Wuwei"or "wu wei") – not inaction but rather a harmonisation of one’s personal will with the natural harmony and justice of Nature. ‘The World is ruled by letting things take their natural course. It cannot be ruled by going against nature or arrogance.’ (Tao Te Ching; Verse 48). It also means that the individual should do things natural to tao and appropriate to do in his circumstances, thus serving as an instrument of the Law rather than doing the things as individuals. That is why no one should take any credit for things done. Nature is stabilized by order, and humans along with all other natural phenomena exist within nature. Attempting to force one's own path is arrogant, futile and self-destructive.

It should be noted that in Taoism the complemental part of "non-action" ("Wu wei") is "non-left-undone" ("Wu bu wei"). Taoism should be viewed as advocating the harmonization of "passivity" and "activity/creativity" instead of just being passive. In other words through stillness and receptivity natural intuition guides us in knowing when to act and when not to act.
Taijitu
Taijitu

Lao Tsu, the legendary author of the Tao Te Ching, was the first to provide a comprehensive treatment of the Tao. The religion based on the concept of Tao - Tao Jiao - is known in English as Taoism. Lao Tsu taught that, "He who follows the Tao is one with the Tao," and "Being at one with the Tao is eternal, though the body dies, the Tao will never pass away.’ (Verses 23 & 16)

Understanding Tao
Part of a series on
Taoism

Fundamentals
Tao · De · Xiulian

Prominent Taoists
Laozi · Zhuangzi
Zhang Daoling · Zhang Jiao
Ge Hong · Chen Tuan
Wang Chongyang

Deities and Immortals
Three Pure Ones
Jade Emperor · Xi Wangmu
Eight Immortals

Main Sects
Quanzhen School
Tianshi Dao
Zhengyi Dao
Shangqing School
Lingbao School

Taoist Texts
Tao Te Ching · Zhuangzi
Daozang

Taoist Precepts
The Five Precepts

Sacred Sites
Shizhou Sandao
Grotto-heavens
Sanshiliu Xiaodongtian
Qishi'er Fudi
Mount Longhu

Portal:Taoism

A cursory glance at life on Earth or what we know of the Universe as a whole reveals refined relationships of complexity, chaotic order, creativity and sublime organization. The beauty of the unspoiled regions of the world; the harmonious complexity of natural ecosystems, have a ‘just-so’ quality, an integrated wholeness that the ancient Chinese called Tao. Tao is the way of Heaven, the resolution of opposites, a way of natural harmony; of Truth, Beauty and Justice. Lao Tzu contrasts this Great Way with the way of human beings:

The Tao of heaven is to take from those who have too much and give to those who do not have enough. Man’s way is different. He takes from those who do not have enough to give to those who already have too much. (verse 77. Tr. Gia Fu Feng)

Lao Tsu characterizes the Way of Man as one in which force is applied without the attainment of desired results:

Whenever you advise a ruler in the way of Tao, counsel him not to use force to conquer the universe. For this would only cause resistance. Thorn bushes spring up wherever the army has passed. Lean years follow in the wake of war. Just do what needs to be done. Never take advantage of power…Force is followed by loss of strength. This is not the way of Tao. That which goes against the Tao comes to an early end. (verse 30. tr. Gia Fu Feng)

Therefore, the origin of humanity's troubles upon the Earth are their having forgotten how to be in the Great Way of the Tao. Remembering the Great Way is a præternatural awareness of one’s deep connection with the entirety of the Universe. This involves the adoption of a mode of ‘non-action’ that is not inaction but rather a harmonisation of one’s personal will with the natural harmony and justice of Tao.

Tao abides in non-action yet nothing is left undone. If kings and lords observed this, the ten thousand things would develop naturally. If they still desired to act they would return to the simplicity of formless substance. Without form there is no desire. Without desire there is tranquillity. And in this way all things would be at peace. (verse 37. tr. Gia Fu Feng)

The greatest virtue is to follow Tao and Tao alone. The Tao is elusive and intangible. Oh, it is intangible and elusive, and yet within is image. Oh, it is elusive and intangible, and yet within is form. Oh, it is dim and dark, and yet within is essence. This essence is very real, and therein lies faith. From the very beginning til now its name has never been forgotten. Thus I perceive the creation. How do I know the ways of creation? Because of this. (verse 21. tr. Gia Fu Feng)

The epoch in which the Tao Te Ching was written, the Axial Age, saw the emergence of numerous philosophies that sought to establish first principles in the understanding of Nature. India produced the Upanishads and Greece the bold hypotheses of the Ionian and Eleatic philosophers. Lao Tsu also sought to account for the origins of the ‘ten thousand things’ and their manner of growth and development.

All things arise from Tao. They are nourished by Virtue. They are formed from matter. They are shaped by environment. Thus the ten thousand things all respect Tao and honour Virtue. Respect of Tao and honour of Virtue are not demanded. But they are in the nature of things. Therefore all things arise from Tao. By Virtue they are nourished, developed, cared for, sheltered, comforted, grown and protected. Creating without claiming; doing without taking credit; guiding without interfering - this is Primal Virtue. (verse 51. tr. ibid )

The great Tao flows everywhere, both to the left and to the right. The ten thousand things depend upon it; it holds nothing back. It fulfils its purpose silently and makes no claim. It nourishes the ten thousand things. And yet is not their lord. It has no aim; it is very small. The ten thousand things return to it, yet it is not their lord. It is very great. It does not show its greatness, And is therefore truly great. (verse 34. tr. ibid)

Yield and overcome; bend and be straight; empty and be full; wear out and be new; have little and gain; have much and be confused. Therefore wise men embrace the one and set an example to all. Not putting on a display, they shine forth. Not justifying themselves, they are distinguished. Not boasting, they receive recognition. Not bragging, they never falter. They do not quarrel so no one quarrels with them. Therefore the ancients say, “Yield and overcome.” Is that an empty saying? Be really whole and all things will come to you. (verse 22. tr. Gia Fu Feng)

Characteristics of Tao

There is a flow and order in the Universe: this is Tao. Tao is never stagnant and is incredibly powerful and keeps things in the Universe balanced and in order. It manifests itself through cycles and transitions: change of seasons, cycle of life, shifts of power, time, and so forth. Tao is the law of Nature.

The Great Way of Tao is best understood in its constituents: Qing 精 corresponding to energy; Qi 氣 or flow of energy; and Shen 神 or the Spirit. Qing Qi Shen 精氣神 constitute the Tao of all that is and are deified in the Three Pure Ones.

Qi is a Chinese term that may be rendered into English as breath, vapour and energy. Because Qi is the flow of energy that moves and motivates the Universe, it may be said that Tao is ultimately a regulator of Qi. Being one with Tao draws best outcomes to fruition: things will "fall into place" as they are meant to be, according to their nature.

The concept of Tao is based upon the understanding that the only constant in the Universe is change (see I Ching, the "Book of Changes") and that we must understand and be in harmony with this change. The change is a constant flow from non-being into being, potential into actual, yin into yang, female into male. The symbol of the Tao, called the Taijitu, is the yin yang confluently flowing into itself in a circle.

The Tao is the main theme discussed in the Tao Te Ching, an ancient Chinese scripture attributed to Lao Tsu. This book does not specifically define what the Tao is; it affirms that in the first sentence, "The Tao that can be told of is not an Unvarying Tao" (tr. Waley, modified). Instead, it points to some characteristics of what could be understood as being the Tao. Below are some excerpts from the book.

* Tao as the origin of things: "Tao begets one; One begets two; Two begets three; Three begets the myriad creatures." (TTC 42, tr. Lau, modified)
* Tao as an inexhaustible nothingness: "The Way is like an empty vessel / That yet may be drawn from / Without ever needing to be filled." (TTC 4, tr. Waley)
* Tao is omnipotent and infallible: "What Tao plants cannot be plucked, what Tao clasps, cannot slip." (TTC 54, tr. Waley)

In the Yi Jing, a sentence closely relates Tao to Yin-Yang or Taiji, asserting that "one (phase of) Yin, one (phase of) Yang, is what is called the Tao." Being thus placed at the conjunction of Yin and Yang alternance, Tao can be understood as the continuity principle that underlies the constant evolution of the world.

Most debates between proponents of one of the Hundred Schools of Thought could be summarized in the simple question: who is closer to the Tao, or, in other words, whose "Tao" is the most powerful? As used in modern spoken and written Chinese, Tao has a wide scope of usage and meaning.

Tao in the Tao Te Ching

Tao is referred to in many ways in the Tao Te Ching. There are different shades of meanings in the various translations of this great work, which, with over 100 translations, is perhaps the most translated Chinese text in the English language. Here is one translation of the first stanza, describing Tao:

The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao;
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth.
The named is the mother of ten thousand things.
Ever desireless, one can see the mystery.
Ever desiring, one can see the manifestations.
These two spring from the same source but differ in name;

this appears as darkness.

Darkness within darkness.
The gate to all mystery.

—(Gia-Fu Feng & Jane English, 1972).

Etymology

According to Rose Quong in her book Chinese Written Characters: Their Wit and Wisdom, the Tao character is parsed into "the path of the warrior," where warrior-monks were the original keepers of both martial arts and spiritual knowledge and wisdom.

The composition of 道 (dào) is 首 (shǒu) meaning 'head' and 辶 (辵 chuò) 'go' (Source: Wenlin). The parsed etymology for the character 首 is distinguished by the tufts at the top, representing the distinctive hairstyle of the warrior class (a "bun"). The character 首 itself is used to refer to concepts related to the head, such as leadership and rulership.
Stroke order
Stroke order

The character 辶 (辵 chuò) 'go' in its reduced form, 廴 resembles a foot, and is meant to be evocative of its meaning "to walk," and "to go," as well as the generic radix for "the way of." This reduced radical 廴 is a component in other radicals and characters.

Translation

The first part of the verse reads thus:

tao k'o tao fei ch'ang tao
ming k'o ming fei ch'ang ming
wu ming t'ian ti chih shih
yu ming wan wu chih mu

Of this, the first two lines are often translated by many as:

The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao;
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.

The Mawang Dui text clearly shows that the original form of line 1 was in fact "fei heng tao" instead of "fei ch'ang tao." The change in the character occurred when "heng" became the name of an emperor.

"Ch'ang" may be accurately translated as "constant" or "unchanging," "unvarying," etc. It was deemed a close equivalent to "heng," which may be accurately translated as "eternal."

Some scholars speculate that the ancient Chinese did not have a concept for eternity. In reality, it is quite clear from the I Ching that the ancient Chinese had this concept from at least 5,000 years ago, 25 centuries before the birth of Lao Zi.

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